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An issue of perennial interest is whether, and to what extent, distinctive attitudes exist among military personnel-views that set them apart from civilian political leaders and the general populace. An earlier examination of this issue1 noted general acceptance of this notion by both critics2 and supporters3 of the military, as well as widespread agreement that military personnel are above average in patriotism, nationalism, conservatism, and traditionalism.4 The issue of distinctive military attitudes has also been the subject of more recent journalistic investigation5 theoretical reflection,6 and empirical research.7
Analyses of a series of surveys of senior military officers and civilian opinion leaders suggest that military officers have been generally more conservative and more "militantly internationalist" than their civilian counterparts. Thus, they were more likely to believe that if one nation falls to communism, others nearby will follow; that any communist victory is a defeat for America's foreign policy goals; that there is nothing wrong with using the CIA to undermine hostile governments; that the U.S. should use force to prevent the spread of communism or aggression by any expansionist power; that containing communism is an important foreign policy goal; that it is not in the United States' interest to have better relations with the Soviet Union; and that thrusts by opponents should be countered with greater levels of force.8 Military officers have also been less likely to support "cooperative internationalism." They are less supportive of cooperating with the United Nations or other international efforts to solve common problems peacefully; of providing economic aid to poorer countries or combating world hunger; and of worldwide arms control. Their conservatism extends to domestic policy as well. For example, they are less willing than civilians to reduce the defense budget in order to increase federal expenditures for education.
The conservatism of the military comes as no surprise. Most theories of civil-military relations have regarded it as an inherent, and perhaps functional, characteristic of military culture that has existed for some time.9 However, some recent writings on American civil-military relations place this conservatism with regard to policy in the context of perceived increasing conservative Republican partisanship, distrust of civilian government, and political activity on the part of the military. Journalistic accounts view these characteristics as extending beyond the senior officers who...