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This study assesses the extent to which portrayals of father-adolescent daughter relationships in four Disney feature films (The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, and Pocahontas) correspond with the qualities of successful and unsuccessful father-adolescent daughter relationships as revealed in the research literature. Findings indicated that the relationships in The Little Mermaid and Aladdin correspond to father-adolescent daughter relationships in which the father denies his daughter freedom to explore her adolescence, while the relationships in Beauty and the Beast and Pocahontas are more consistent with father-adolescent daughter relationships in which the father allows the daughter freedom to negotiate her adolescence. Implications of these findings are discussed. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

The influence of media is well documented. For example, summarizing their review of work by clinicians and medical researchers, Yokota and Thompson (2000) conclude that "it is difficult to dispute the potentially powerful role of the media as a teacher of social norms to many young people" (p. 2717). According to Smythe (1981), "Today, the mass media . . . are the central means of forming attitudes, values, and buying behavior-consciousness in action" (p. 4). And, Thompson (1997) contends, as the media become more pervasive, "they begin to play roles formerly filled by the family and by religious and educational institutions. We may approve or disapprove, but media increasingly offer us myths through which we understand our roles in society and even predict our personal futures" (p. 21).

Looking specifically at the influence of film, Young (2000) and Brummett (1984, 1985) contend that films can be seen as "equipment for living." Brummett (1984) presents evidence that stories in film "do not merely pose problems, they suggest ways and means to resolve the problems insofar as they follow discursively a pattern that people might follow in reality" (p. 164). Film and other media, Turner and West (1998) argue, provide external models of families that have the potential to influence family interaction.

Although the only major familial relationship featured in The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, and Pocahontas consists of the father-daughter dyad, no study specifically addresses this relationship or the influence it might have on viewers. Instead, discussions tend to center on topics such as animation (Cole & Smilgis, 1992; Corliss, 1997; Zoglin, 1990), feminine identities of the heroines (Downey, 1996; Henke, Umble, & Smith, 1996), gender and sex roles within the films (Henke et al., 1996; Hoerrner, 1996), textual differences between the original story and the film version (Dahlerup, 1990; Ingwersen & Ingwersen, 1990; O'Brien, 1996; Trites, 1991), and marketing strategies (Edgerton & Jackson, 1996; Jackson, 1996; Munk, 1993; Schoemer, Samuels, & Chang, 1995; Shapiro, 1995). Other scholars direct their criticism at the Disney Company, including such issues as dissatisfaction with the extension of health benefits to companions of gay employees and anger over the Barbie-like bodies of Disney's animated heroines (Dribben, 1996; Ostman, 1996; Torphy, 1995).

Although scholars and writers tend to ignore the father-daughter relationships in Disney animated feature films, parents in the audiences have noticed the family in these films, and their commentaries can be found in editorials and letters to the editor. These writers, however, often focus more on the "motherless" aspect of the family rather than on the relationship between the father and the adolescent daughter (Armacost, 1995).

This study assesses the extent to which portrayals of father-adolescent daughter relationships in The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, and Pocahontas correspond with the qualities of successful and unsuccessful father-adolescent daughter relationships as revealed in the research literature. These portrayals, seen by millions of viewers, have the potential to affect perceptions of father-daughter relationships, which, in turn, can affect their communication.

FAMILY RELATIONSHIPS DURING ADOLESCENCE

A family with an adolescent child is at a difficult stage in the family's development, separation-individuation (Blos, 1967). This is a time marked by greater stress, lower levels of family pride, and less cohesion than in other stages of the family life cycle (Noller, 1995; Olson et al., 1989; Preto, 1999)-as adolescents and their parents try to negotiate their relationships and changes in the adolescents' sexuality, identity (including self-concept and self-esteem), autonomy, and friendships (Buri, Kirchner, & Walsh, 1987; Fulmer, 1999; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Grotevant & Cooper, 1985; Hoelter & Harper, 1987; Newman & Murray, 1983; Noller, 1995; Openshaw, Thomas, & Rollins, 1984; Preto, 1999; Sheppard, Wright, & Goodstadt, 1985). Separation-individuation typically is defined "in terms of disengagement from dependent ties with parents in the service of enhanced autonomy. . . . [And] as involving the interplay between needs or self-determination and interpersonal relatedness . . . and as taking place in the context of renegotiated connections with parents" (Gnaulati & Heine, 2001, pp. 59-60). Hardie (1999) describes this as a time of destabilization for everyone in the family.

Although boys and girls have the same task during separation-individuation-to develop a healthy balance between autonomy and dependence with their parents (Geuzaine, Debry, & Liesens, 2000), there is evidence that the process varies according to the sex of the adolescent. For example, girls are more inclined than boys to value family closeness, to have emotional dependence on both parents, and to need emotional support from their mothers (Geuzaine et al., 2000); in general, the gratification of nurturance and dependency needs seems particularly important for young women (Quintana & Kerr, 1993). Also, girls tend to use more emotion-focused coping than boys in response to parent conflict (Lohman, 2000). Other evidence, however, suggests that girls and boys differ little in the separation-individuation process (Allen & Stoltenberg, 1995; Gnaulati & Heine, 2001).

Based on her review of the extensive literature on families with adolescents, Noller (1995) concludes that five factors are useful in distinguishing "successful" from "unsuccessful" families in this stage of the developmental cycle.1 The five factors are: (a) renegotiating roles and rules, (b) providing a comfortable climate for identity exploration, (c) enhancing rather than diminishing self-esteem, (d) providing appropriate modeling and teaching of problem solving, and (e) allowing adolescents to make important decisions.

Renegotiating roles and rules is a difficult task for both parents and adolescents as parents attempt to provide latitude in their adolescent's quest for independence. The most successful transitions for adolescents occur in families in which parents encourage moves toward autonomy and willingly relinquish control after working with the adolescent to redefine a more balanced parent-adolescent relationship that is more mutual and equal (Apter, 1990; Endres, 1997; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Hardie, 1999; Noller, 1995; Stierlin, 1994).

Identity exploration and formation begin to solidify during adolescence, and families that encourage identity exploration and achievement most likely produce adolescents with healthy psychological adjustment (Endres, 1997; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Hardie, 1999; Noller, 1995; Sheppard et al., 1985). Also, adolescents who have positive relationships with their parents are likely to model the same social skills as their parents (Noller, 1995). On the other hand, families in which parents use coercive power are most likely to have adolescents with a less developed sense of identity and who are less autonomous, less confident, and more susceptible to peer pressure (Noller, 1995; Quintana & Kerr, 1993; Sheppard et al., 1985).

One effect of an encouraging and comfortable climate is to enhance, rather than diminish, adolescent self-esteem (Quintana & Kerr, 1993). Encouraging parents confirm feelings of worthiness and lovableness; coercive parents tend to imply incompetence, untrustworthiness, and poor motivation (Hardie, 1999; Noller, 1995; Quintana & Kerr, 1993; Sheppard et al., 1985). Interestingly, self-esteem in adolescent daughters is strongly affected by the level of support and nurturance they receive from their parents, but tensions between control and autonomy seem to have almost no effect (Noller, 1995).

Regarding appropriate modeling and teaching of problem solving, Noller (1995) writes, "families with better parent-adolescent communication tend to be more close and loving, more flexible in their approaches to solving family problems, and more satisfied with their family life than those families where parent-adolescent communication is less effective" (p. 96). Parents who model democratic decision making, for example, are more likely than those who model an autocratic style to have adolescents who feel more independent (Noller, 1995). Mitchell and Rosenthal (1992) found that adolescents are more likely to feel suicidal in rigid, conflict-avoidant families with poor problem-solving communication.

Finally, successful families facilitate the development of adolescent decision-making skills. Noller (1995) writes that providing latitude in this area is difficult for parents because adolescents typically want more control than parents want to give them, and the adolescents' decisions may have long-term effects (e.g., career choices and early onset of sexual activity). Genuchi (1997), in a study of 19-year-old women, found that daughters who perceived their fathers as caring were more likely to put off their first sexual intercourse and to have fewer sexual partners.

FATHER-ADOLESCENT DAUGHTER RELATIONSHIPS

According to the 2000 U.S. Census, single-parent, father-headed households increased 62% over the last 10 years (R. Fields, 2001). In addition, "during the past two decades, developmentalists have exhibited a keen interest in understanding fathers, the heretofore 'forgotten contributors to child development'" (DeLuccie, 1996, p. 1351). However, research specifically focused on father-daughter relationships is limited: "the father-daughter dyad is perhaps one of the least defined and most misunderstood of relationships . . . very little scholarly information is available on the healthy father-daughter relationship" (Endres, 1997, p. 317). For example, in a study of published research on adolescents, Hosley and Montemayor (1997) found that "48% of the studies dealt exclusively with mothers, and only 1% exclusively with fathers" (p. 172).

Separation-individuation in families without mothers, where the daughter's only parent-child relationship is with her father, can be expected to be different from families with both a mother and father, but it is uncertain what that difference might be. For example, there is evidence that a father's influence on his daughter's separation-individuation is manifest indirectly through the mother (Simnowitz, 1999), but empirical studies have yet to consider what happens when the mother is absent.

Much of the literature on successful father-daughter relationships consists of descriptive and atheoretical writings, such as fathers' and daughters' personal accounts of their own relationships, interviews, and cultural commentaries (Barker, 1994; Boose & Flowers, 1989; S. Fields, 1983; Woolfolk & Woolfolk, 1982). However, results of our review of empirically supported research findings appear to support two father-adolescent daughter paradigms-paradigms that represent extreme or stereotypical cases, endpoints of the continuum from "completely successful" to "completely unsuccessful" relationships.2

The first paradigm considers families that successfully navigate adolescence, families in which the father allows his children freedom to explore adolescence. Typically, these are families in which parents are willing to negotiate, provide a comfortable climate for identity exploration, enhance rather than diminish self-esteem, provide appropriate modeling for problem solving, and allow their adolescents to make important decisions (Apter, 1990; Endres, 1997; Galvin & Brommel, 2000; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Noller, 1995; Preto, 1999; Quintana & Kerr, 1993; Sheppard et al., 1985; Weiss, 1994).

The second paradigm considers families that have difficulty navigating adolescence, families in which the father does not allow his children the freedom to explore their adolescence. Typically, these are families in which parents are less willing to negotiate and provide freedom, and so fail to develop a comfortable climate for identity exploration. As a consequence, they diminish adolescents' self-esteem and frequently encounter rebellion (Apter, 1990; Endres, 1997; Fulmer, 1999; Galvin & Brommel, 2000; Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Noller, 1995; Phillips, 1996; Preto, 1999; Quintana & Kerr, 1993; Sheppard et al., 1985; Stierlin, 1994; Weiss, 1994).

Our synthesis of the literature supporting the two paradigms revealed five predominant areas of research that provide specific dimensions on which the two paradigms may be contrasted: (a) identity, sell-concept, and self-esteem; (b) social skills; (c) power and control; (d) father's influence; and (e) peer relationships. These dimensions also provide a basis for making predictions about the behavior and personality of the adolescent daughter in each type of father-daughter relationship.

Within Paradigm I, if the father allows the daughter freedom to explore her adolescence, the following expectations are supported for each of the five dimensions. Predictions regarding identity, self-concept, and self-esteem include the daughter displaying more (rather than less) autonomy (Gecas & Schwalbe, 1986; Noller, 1995), confidence (Galvin & Brommel, 2000), motivation (Noller, 1995), and feelings of worthiness and lovableness. Also, with freedom and a positive relationship, the father and daughter are apt to display similar social skills (Noller, 1995).

Because the father-daughter relationship is positive and supportive, issues regarding power and control are less important than they are in Paradigm II. Father-daughter talk, which may include personal topics and conversations where the father and daughter talk with, not at, each other (Apter, 1990; Noller, 1995), reduces the probability of power and control conflicts. Specifically, conflicts regarding the daughter's attraction to others and her dating are minimized by the father's trust in the daughter, his acceptance of her as a sexual being, and his willingness to allow her to date freely. Given the reduced probability of issues arising around power and control, the expectation is that the daughter will, if necessary, act as her father's caretaker (Galvin & Brommel, 2000; Weiss, 1994).

The father's influence-both on his daughter's development of high self-esteem and her consideration of his opinions as important-stems from his being openly encouraging and supportive (Noller, 1995). This behavior also influences her peer relationships: she is less susceptible to peer pressure than the daughter in Paradigm II (Noller, 1995; Sheppard et al., 1985).

Within Paradigm II, if the father does not allow the daughter freedom to explore her adolescence, the following expectations are supported for each of the five dimensions. Predictions regarding identity, self-concept, and self-esteem include the daughter displaying less (rather than more) autonomy, confidence, and motivation as well as heightened feelings of incompetence and untrustworthiness (Noller, 1995). Also, given the coercive nature of their relationship, the daughter is likely to display different social skills than her father (Noller, 1995). If, however, the coercive relationship is nevertheless a positive one, father and daughter are more likely to display similar social skills.

Power and control issues are central for the father-daughter relationship in Paradigm II. Conflict in this area stems from the father's lack of trust in his daughter, which is manifest in his rules and restrictions regarding her dating and his unwillingness to acknowledge or accept her as a sexual being (Endres, 1997; Noller, 1995). If the daughter separates or distances herself from her father, it is likely he will punish her in order to get compliance with his demands (Noller, 1995). And if the daughter rebels, it is likely her rebellion will be a form of punishment for him-she feels angry and guilty, as does he (Apter, 1990; Stierlin, 1994).

Power and control issues are reflected in their talk. For example, she limits her topics of conversation to superficial ones and does not confide in him because she sees him as "inept" (Apter, 1990). Also, they speak at, not with, each other (Apter, 1990; Noller, 1995). Indeed, she sees him as a CIA-like interrogator (Phillips, 1996).

The father's influence on his daughter's behavior is minimal because his opinions are considered unimportant (Apter, 1990). Moreover, his lack of encouragement, support, and trust influence his daughter to have low self-esteem and a poor self-image (Noller, 1995; Quintana & Kerr, 1993). In addition, her peer relationships are likely to reflect her lack of reliance on her father; she will be more susceptible to peer pressure than the daughter in Paradigm I (Noller, 1995; Sheppard et al., 1985).

These two paradigms help elucidate father-daughter relationships in everyday life and may help explain father-daughter relationships depicted in the media. To explore this possibility, the following research question was posited:

RQ: To what extent do the film portrayals of father-adolescent daughter relationships in The Little Mermaid, Aladdin, Beauty and the Beast, and Pocahontas reflect the two paradigms derived from research conducted with real fathers and adolescent daughters?3

An answer to this question should provide an understanding of what viewers, especially young viewers, may be learning from the films and the characters with whom they identify. This information is important if the models depicted in the films provide viewers with a basis for their expectations about family interactions (Brummett, 1984; Turner & West, 1998) and myths to embrace as reality (Thompson, 1997).

METHOD

Criteria for the Selection of Films

Because of the appeal of animation to all audiences, although primarily to young audiences, selection was limited to this format. Since 1937 there have been 77 G-rated animated features released in theaters (this does not include direct-to-video animated films, such as Little Mermaid II). Of these 77, only four fit all of the following three criteria: (a) "blockbuster" status, a term that signifies a minimum $100,000,000 domestic box office return (indicating the highest level of box office success according to widely accepted Hollywood standards) ; (b) father-adolescent daughter dyad as the only significant family relationship; and (c) depiction of the developmental stage of adolescent separation and individuation, the stage most characterized by conflict. The four films meeting these criteria are The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, Aladdin, and Pocahontas.4

The Little Mermaid (Musker & Clements, 1989) presents headstrong, 16-year-old Ariel, who disobeys her father, King Triton, runs away from home, and seeks contact with the human world. After falling in love with human Prince Eric, Ariel enlists the help of Ursula, the Sea Witch, to win Eric's heart. Although Triton originally believes all humans to be "barbarians," Eric proves his worth when he defeats Ursula and saves the merworld.

In Aladdin (Musker & Clements, 1992), the Sultan demands that his daughter, Jasmine, choose a suitor to marry before her next birthday. Rather than succumb to her father's commands, Jasmine runs away from home and meets Aladdin, a "street rat," unworthy of the Princess's hand in marriage. Ultimately, the unworthy street rat outwits the evil Jafar, saves the Sultan's kingdom, and wins Jasmine's hand in marriage.

In Beauty and the Beast (Trousdale & Wise, 1991), an inventor's (Maurice) daughter, Belle, sacrifices her freedom and takes her father's place as the prisoner in the Beast's castle. She discovers that the Beast is really not as scary as she first believed and falls in love with him. Although Belle leaves the Beast's castle to care for her sick father, she later convinces him that the Beast is really a kind, gentle man, and they return to save him from the angry villagers.

Pocahontas (Gabriel & Goldberg, 1995) tells the story of Pocahontas meeting and befriending John Smith, a white man. Disobeying her father's (Chief Powhatan) command that everyone should stay in the village, Pocahontas leaves in an effort to find peace between the white men and the natives. Her desire for peace is so intense that she is willing to sacrifice her own life for that of John Smith. Ultimately, her actions help to bring peace.

Categories Used for Analysis

Every scene in each of the four films that included father-daughter interaction, or discussions between the father and others or the daughter and others that included references to the father-daughter relationship, was transcribed. These scenes were then analyzed, guided by the method of analytic induction, along the five dimensions of the two paradigms: (a) the adolescent daughter's identity, self-concept, and self-esteem; (b) her social skills; (c) issues of power and control in her relationship with her father; (d) the father's influence on both her personality and behavior; and (e) her peer relationships. Specifically, the research question that guided the analysis of each scene was: How does the father-daughter relationship in this scene reflect real father-daughter relationships, as indicated by the two-paradigm model?

Analytic induction was used as the method for this study because, although based on hypotheses (e.g., behaviors consistent with the two paradigms are apparent in the relationships in the four films), it assumes that new concepts and hypotheses emerge during analysis (Bulmer, 1969; Gilgun, 1995). Gilgun (1995), who uses analytic induction in her study of narrative accounts of incest perpetrators, argues that the method is highly useful for studying family narratives.

As a check on the accuracy of the coding, an individual familiar with the coding categories coded 10% of the transcribed scenes. Initial agreement between coders was approximately 90%; after discussion, agreement was reached on the coding of all the selected scenes. Once the check was complete, coding resumed of all of the transcribed scenes.

ANALYSIS

Belle's relationship with Maurice in Beauty and the Beast and Pocahontas's relationship with Chief Powhatan in Pocahontas appear consistent with Paradigm I, in which fathers allow their daughters freedom to explore their adolescence. On the other hand, Ariel's relationship with Triton in The Little Mermaid and Jasmine's relationship with the Sultan in Aladdin correspond more to Paradigm II, in which fathers deny their daughters freedom to explore their adolescence.

Belle and Pocahontas

Rebelling for others. Central to the drama of both Beauty and the Beast and Pocahontas is each daughter's rebellion, which takes the form of disobeying her father's wishes. The motivation for their rebellion, however, is interesting because both rebel for, not against, their fathers-their motives are unselfish.

Belle has a close and satisfying relationship with her father, Maurice, although she is considered odd by the townspeople, who sing of her as "strange" and "peculiar" (4:01-6:08).5 The father and daughter talk with each other and enjoy each other's company. When Maurice leaves for the fair, Belle is genuinely happy for him and proud of his wood-chopping invention. When Filippe, the horse, returns without Maurice, Belle does not hesitate to search for him.

Filippe takes her to the Beast's castle where she finds her father locked in the dungeon. Maurice tells Belle to flee, but, determined to get him out, she offers the Beast a trade: She will stay forever if the Beast will let her father go. Although Maurice pleads with his daughter, the Beast sends Maurice to town and, as promised, Belle stays behind. Belle's rebellion is that she defies her father's wishes for her to leave and, instead, takes his place against his will. Her rebellion-her disobedience-is to sacrifice herself for him.

Like Belle, Pocahontas's rebellion is unselfishly motivated. Her rebellion begins when she has a dream that she believes indicates that something exciting is about to happen. She tells her father about the dream, and he agrees with her; he then tells her that one of the tribesmen, Kokoum, has asked for her hand in marriage. Although Chief Powhatan clearly believes that the marriage would be a good one, he never directly orders Pocahontas to marry Kokoum. Pocahontas, stating that Kokoum is "so serious," believes that her dream is pointing her elsewhere.

Pocahontas begins to understand the meaning of her dream when she meets John Smith, a white man, with whom she falls in love. The white men are believed to be dangerous, and Chief Powhatan orders that everyone should stay in the village until they decide how to fight this enemy. But Pocahontas believes that John Smith is a good man and that these white men are not evil. She defies her father's rule and leaves the village to convince Smith to come and speak with Chief Powhatan in an effort to find a peaceful resolution. He agrees to come.

Kokoum sees Smith and Pocahontas together and attacks him. One of Smith's friends is nearby and shoots Kokoum. Smith is captured and taken prisoner. Chief Powhatan decides that Smith will be the first white man to die, and he tells Pocahontas that she shamed him by leaving the village. When Pocahontas tells him that she was trying to help, he tells her that her foolishness killed Kokoum.

The next morning, Pocahontas decides that she must do everything she can to save Smith's life, and she throws herself in harm's way as Chief Powhatan prepares to strike. Pocahontas pleads for Smith's life, telling her father that if Smith must die, she will die too. Pocahontas's rebellion is two-fold: First, she defies her father in order to convince Smith to talk with him, and, second, she denies her father Smith's execution. She is willing to defy her father and to sacrifice herself in the hopes of avoiding a bloody battle. Chief Powhatan finally realizes that war will not solve their problems, and eventually, everything is peacefully resolved.

Denying themselves for others. Belle and Pocahontas rebel for the sake of others: Belle sacrifices her freedom for her father, and Pocahontas is willing to sacrifice her life for peace. Both are dedicated to their fathers and their rebellions are a result of that dedication. The fact that they both find love seems to be a result of their selfless efforts.

However, their dedication does not stop there. Even after Belle falls in love with the Beast, she leaves him to find and care for Maurice, who is terribly ill. And Pocahontas forfeits a future life with John Smith to stay where she is needed, even after her father tells her, "You must choose your own path" (1:12:51). Both women are willing to deny themselves love in the best interests of their fathers.

Conversations with supportive fathers. Several factors contribute to the successful relationship that Belle and Pocahontas have with their fathers, including conversations with, not at, each other, genuine support, and unselfish sacrifice. Both fathers talk with, not at, their daughters. For example, after Belle returns from shopping in town, she and Maurice speak about personal issues, and he genuinely tries to understand and encourage her, even alluding to dating possibilities:

MAURICE: So, did you have a good time in town today?

BELLE: I got a new book. Papa, do you think I'm odd?

MAURICE: My daughter? Odd? Huh, where would you get an idea like that?

BELLE: . . . There's no one here I can really talk to.

MAURICE: What about that Gaston? He's a handsome fella.

BELLE: He's handsome, all right. And rude and conceited. And, oh, Papa, he's not for me. (10:28-10:55)

Belle's openness with her father indicates a history of his good listening behaviors (Rosenfeld & Bowen, 1991). Similarly, Pocahontas is able to speak frankly with her father:

CHIEF POWHATAN: Seeing you gives me great joy. . . . Come with me. We have much to talk about. I want to hear about everything you've been doing. [They walk together.]

POCAHONTAS: Father, for many nights now, I've been having a very strange dream. I think it's telling me something's about to happen, something exciting.

CHIEF POWHATAN: Yes, something exciting is about to happen.

POCAHONTAS: Really, what is it?

CHIEF POWHATAN: Kokoum has asked to seek your hand in marriage.

POCAHONTAS: Marry Kokoum?

CHIEF POWHATAN: I told him it would make my heart soar.

POCAHONTAS: But, he's so serious. (10:20-11:50)

These open, easy conversations are not present in Aladdin or The Little Mermaid, and they are one aspect of the father-daughter relationship that is consistent with real-life, successful relationships.

Another component of Belle and Pocahontas's relationship with their fathers that corresponds to real-life, successfully negotiated relationships is their genuine support of each other. When Pocahontas stands up to her father about the execution of John Smith, Chief Powhatan is proud of her, stating, "My daughter speaks with a wisdom beyond her years. We have all come here with anger in our hearts, but she comes with courage and understanding" (1:08:23). Later, when she must decide whether to stay or go to England with John Smith, her father tells her, "You must choose your own path" (1:12:51), indicating he trusts and supports whatever decision she makes. Paralleling this, Pocahontas's decision to stay and deny herself a relationship with John Smith demonstrates her support of and faith in her father.

Belle and Maurice have a supportive relationship as well. She encourages him when he is frustrated with his invention and nurses him back to health after he becomes gravely ill. Although he initially believes the Beast to be evil, Maurice believes Belle when she says the Beast is kind, and he supports her decision to try to warn the Beast when the villagers go to kill him.

Peer relationships. Consistent with the freedom-filled father-daughter paradigm, neither Belle nor Pocahontas becomes increasingly reliant on peers. Belle is so self-assured that she shuns her peers because they want her to convert to a "nonthinking" woman. And, although she makes friends with those in the castle, she does not rely on them, easily standing up to the Beast without their help. Pocahontas's peers do not support her decision, so she cannot rely on them.

Identity, self-concept, and self-esteem. Based on the consistencies observed in Beauty and the Beast and Pocahontas with real-life father-daughter relationships in which the father gives the daughter freedom to explore her identity, one would expect Belle and Pocahontas to have the personalities they have: They display autonomy, confidence, independence, low susceptibility to peer pressure, high overall motivation, and feelings of worthiness and lovableness.

Ariel and Jasmine

Self-seeking rebels. Ariel and Jasmine, the two heroines in freedom-denied, less successfully negotiated father-daughter relationships, display the same personality elements as Belle and Pocahontas. Ariel and Jasmine also are autonomous, confident, independent, feel worthy and lovable, display high general motivation, and have low susceptibility to peer pressure. However, each also displays behaviors consistent with daughters in families that encounter difficulty negotiating adolescence, especially in the area of rebellion.

Ariel, the 16-year-old heroine of The Little Mermaid, is headstrong and independent, more interested in the human world than the merworld. Before the audience is even introduced to her, we know that she is in trouble with her father, King Triton, for missing "the concert." Not only is she in trouble, but the reason she misses the concert is because she breaks one of the fundamental merworld rules: She goes to the surface to talk to her friend Scuttle, a seagull. As soon as she realizes that she's late for the concert she knows she will be in trouble: "My father's going to kill me!" (11:00).

Angry, Triton calls Ariel's behavior "careless." When Ariel's friend, Flounder, tries to defend her and accidentally lets out that they went up to the surface, Triton's anger turns to a combination of rage and worry. Triton speaks at, not with, his daughter, ignoring her pleas for him to listen:

TRITON: How many times must we go through this? You could have been seen by one of those barbarians, by one of those humans!

ARIEL: Daddy, they're not barbarians!

TRITON: They're dangerous! Do you think I want to see my youngest daughter snared by some fish eater's hook?

ARIEL: I'm 16-years-old-I'm not a child anymore! . . .

TRITON: Not another word! And I am never, never to hear of you going to the surface again. Is that understood? (12:47-14:00)

After a visibly upset Ariel swims away, Triton enlists Sebastian, the court composer, "to watch over her, to keep her out of trouble" (14:40). Triton's use of Sebastian demonstrates both his concern for and distrust in his daughter.

Triton's lack of faith is not unjustified. Soon after receiving her reprimand, Ariel returns to the surface, saving the life of Eric, a human prince, with whom she immediately falls in love. Watching him from the water, Ariel promises that someday she'll be part of his world. Sebastian decides that the best course of action is to "forget that this whole thing ever happened," essentially choosing to conceal Ariel's open defiance of her father (26:52).

After saving Eric, Ariel's demeanor changes; Triton notices that she begins "mooning about, daydreaming, singing to herself" (33:20). He does not understand the changes in Ariel until one of his other daughters informs him that Ariel is in love. Ecstatic at the prospect of Ariel in love with a merman, but pretending to know nothing, Triton questions Sebastian. Sebastian breaks down, frantically telling Triton, "I tried to stop her, sir! She wouldn't listen. I told her to stay away from humans. They are bad. They are trouble!" (34:35).

Furious, Triton finds Ariel in her cave of human artifacts. He interrogates her and is mortified when she tells him that she loves Eric. Livid, Triton decides he has only one course of action. Ignoring her pleas, he destroys everything in her cave with his magical staff. He is obviously saddened by what he felt he had to do. Triton tells Ariel that as long as she lives under his ocean she will obey his rules; Ariel vows to find a way to be with Eric, to be a part of his world. These arguments between Ariel and Triton are the foundation upon which the rest of the story builds.

This second confrontation with her father paves the way for Ursula, the Sea Witch and arch enemy of Triton, to dangle humanity before Ariel. Ursula tells Ariel that she can make her human for three days, during which time Ariel must make Eric fall in love with her. If she succeeds, she stays human forever; if she fails, she will belong to Ursula. Despite realizing that if she becomes human she will never be with her father or sisters again, Ariel decides love is more important. Ariel signs the contract with Ursula, becomes human, and effectively leaves her father's ocean, completing her rebellion.

Jasmine's rebellion is much less complicated than Ariel's. The law states that Jasmine must be married by her next birthday (only three days away), and her father, the Sultan, desperately wants her to choose a suitor. Although Jasmine tries to explain her reluctance to her father, the Sultan feels bound by the law, and their conversation results in frustration on both sides. Like Ariel, Jasmine's initial rebellion (her refusal to choose a suitor) lays the foundation for the enemy to make his move: Jafar tries to become the Sultan.

That night, Jasmine runs away, telling Raja, the tiger, "I can't stay here and have my life lived for me" (16:00). By running away, she rebels against her father in two ways: by refusing to choose a suitor and by leaving the palace and effectively giving up her princess-hood. Jasmine's rebellion is short-lived, however, because she soon reveals her identity and returns to the palace to save Aladdin's life.

Power and control. Ariel and Triton's relationship and Jasmine and the Sultan's relationship reflect much of the research on father-daughter relationships in which the adolescent is denied freedom to explore, especially regarding issues of power and control.

Ariel's rebellion is twofold. Not only does she want to spend time with Eric, but she also wants to punish her father for his coercive tactics. As she leaves the cave to see Ursula, she taunts Sebastian: "Why don't you go tell my father? You're good at that" (38:52). Ariel's rebellion is an open disobedience to her father; not only does she go to the surface, she goes one step farther and becomes one of "those barbarians."

Other behaviors related to the rebellion (anger, guilt, reliance on peers) reflect real-life father-daughter relationships as well. Ariel is angry with her father for destroying her cave, not listening to her, and commanding her never to go to the surface, and Triton is angry with Ariel for so blatantly disobeying him. Although Ariel feels guilty for going to see Ursula, her anger outweighs her guilt; she shows no remorse until the end when Ursula takes her prisoner and Ariel needs her father's help. Triton feels guilty for punishing Ariel and guilty and responsible for her "disappearance." Out of the ocean, Ariel experiences an increased reliance on her peers (Flounder, Sebastian, and Scuttle) to help her out. When Sebastian decides that he must tell Triton about the pact with Ursula, Ariel coerces him to help her.

Jasmine and the Sultan's relationship also reflects the research on power and control in real-life father-adolescent daughter relationships, however, not as perfectly as Triton and Ariel's. Although the Sultan does not punish his daughter into submission, Jasmine does rebel against him and the law by refusing to choose a suitor. The Sultan feels angry and frustrated by Jasmine's reluctance to marry, and he also feels slightly guilty for forcing her to marry.

Feeling angry herself, Jasmine further rebels by openly disobeying her father; she leaves the palace and runs away. Jasmine shows no signs of remorse for leaving. When Aladdin asks her where she is from, she answers, "What does it matter? I ran away and I am not going back" (21:55). The Sultan's reaction to Jasmine's running away is never seen; perhaps he never finds out because the rebellion is quickly aborted when Jasmine must return to the castle to try to save Aladdin's life. Jasmine's motivation for returning is important: She does not return because of her father, but because of a boy she loves.

Conversations with unsupportive fathers. Jasmine and Ariel have similar attitudes about their conversations with their fathers, which correspond to experiences in real-life freedom-denied families. Neither confides in her father about personal issues because each sees her father as "inept." Ariel states plainly that her father would "never understand" (19:25); although he is wise and caring, he is not open to anything having to do with the human world.

Jasmine is more willing than Ariel to try to speak with her father, but the Sultan is childlike, more interested in playing with his toys than in talking with her. When Jasmine tries to speak with her father about her impending marriage, the Sultan's final comment is a frustrated and nonunderstanding, "OOOOOOO!" (13:50). Later, when Jasmine speaks to her father about Jafar's punishment of Aladdin, the Sultan glosses over the problem, declaring that all is settled. Visibly unsatisfied with the outcome, Jasmine simply leaves the room.

In addition, both daughters have fathers who talk at, not with, them. Triton orders and commands Ariel, refusing to listen actively to her, despite her pleadings. The Sultan is worried more about the letter of the law than his daughter's desires. Acting like interrogators, Triton does not allow Ariel to answer before passing judgment, and the Sultan allows his concern over Jasmine's need to marry to supersede her own concerns. Both daughters feel that their fathers are unsupportive. These communication difficulties ultimately encourage both women to rebel.

Social skills and peer pressure. There are two areas in which The Little Mermaid and Aladdin are consistent with real-life freedom-denied relationships, but are inconsistent with each other: social skills and peer pressure. Despite the fact that the daughters in both films are denied freedom, their relationships with their fathers seem to be positive and loving. As expected, then, Triton and Ariel display similar social skills. Jasmine and the Sultan, however, display very different social skills, despite their positive relationship. The Sultan acts like a child, while Jasmine is far more sophisticated. Jasmine's ability to communicate in the face of her father's ineptitude is never explained.

The other noticeable difference between Ariel and Triton and Jasmine and the Sultan concerns peer relationships. The inconsistency is easily explained: Jasmine has no peers. Ariel, on the other hand, relies on her peers after she runs away. Corresponding to real-life relationships, Ariel's fight with her father (and her rebellion) creates situational factors (being on land) that require her to depend more on Flounder, Scuttle, and Sebastian.

Dating. It would be unfair to say that Ariel and Jasmine live their lives completely dictated by rules; however, they both face rules and restrictions with regard to dating (another consistency with real-life freedom-denied families). Ariel can date only mermen, and Jasmine can marry only a prince. This poses a problem for both women as Ariel falls in love with a human and Jasmine falls in love with a "street rat."

In these situations, the stories begin to move away from their correspondence with real-life father-adolescent daughter relationships and become distinct fairy tales. In the end, it is these "unworthy" men who provide salvation: Eric defeats Ursula, saving the merworld, and Aladdin outwits Jafar, saving the Sultan's kingdom. Eric's and Aladdin's worth proved, Triton and the Sultan quickly mend their narrow-minded ways and approve the previously forbidden matches. The rebellious daughters prove to be right, avoid punishment, and get their way: Triton gives his daughter humanity so that she can marry Eric, and the Sultan changes the law so that Jasmine can marry Aladdin, declaring that, "From this day forward, the princess will marry whomever she deems worthy" (1:24:18). No longer are real-life relationships reflected. Rather, a dangerous message is sent to girls of all ages in the viewing audience: Selfish defiance proves you right and gets you what you want without negative consequences.

Identity, self-concept, and self-esteem. Based on the consistencies with real-life freedom-denied father-daughter relationships observed in The Little Mermaid and Aladdin, one would expect Ariel and Jasmine to have different personalities than they have. According to the research, they should display low autonomy, low confidence, susceptibility to peer pressure, feelings of incompetence, feelings of untrustworthiness, and poor general motivation. However, both Ariel and Jasmine exhibit just the opposite; the traits that they display correspond more accurately with freedom-filled families. In fact, their personalities match almost exactly those of Belle and Pocahontas.

DISCUSSION

The relationships in all four films reflect qualities of real-life relationships as found in the two father-daughter paradigms. However, where they differ from the paradigms, some unsupported and potentially dangerous messages are communicated to viewers, particularly the girls in the audience.

Message One: freedom-denied relationships foster positive changes in identity, self-concept, and self-esteem. Given their freedom-denied relationships with their fathers, research indicates that Ariel and Jasmine should display low autonomy, low confidence, feelings of incompetence and untrustworthiness, and low general motivation. However, they exhibit just the opposite-traits that correspond more closely with freedom-filled families. The implication that daughters in freedom-denied relationships can, do, or will display these positive changes is simply not supported by research and sends an incorrect message to girls in the viewing audience.

Message Two: selfish rebellion is good. Schweizer and Schweizer (1998) argue that "for Disney heroines, the problems are always external. . . . It's almost illegal at Disney to create a character flaw in a female heroine" (p. 146). The findings of the present study do not support this argument, especially with regard to Jasmine and Ariel. Although Triton and the Sultan irritate their daughters with their rules and restrictions, the direct disobedience of Ariel and Jasmine is, among other things, motivated by their selfish desire for freedom. If these women did not demonstrate this "character flaw," the stories would be very different: Ariel would never meet Eric, and Jasmine would never meet Aladdin. This selfish rebellion is essential for the plot, and the lesson, self-seeking rebellion gets you what you want, is problematic. Not only does it teach that selfishness is a positive quality, but it encourages it by showing the love and respect gained as a result. Ariel and Jasmine openly disobey their fathers in their quests for freedom and the love of "unworthy" men. Ironically, it is these "unworthy" men who provide salvation: The Little Mermaid's Eric defeats Ursula, and Aladdin's Aladdin outwits Jafar.

The depiction of selfish rebellion as a means for achieving a happy life is supported in part by the second paradigm: In a family where the father denies his daughter the freedom to explore her identity, rebellion is the likely outcome (Stierlin, 1994). However, there is no support for the "happy ending" depicted in The Little Mermaid and Aladdin as a result of this rebellion.

Message Three: unselfish rebellion is good. Belle and Pocahontas both disobey their fathers, but both have unselfish motives: Belle wants to save her father, and Pocahontas wants to save her tribe. Adolescent daughters are not normally presented with such difficult situations, but the message is that sacrificing yourself for others is noble.

The rebellions depicted in Beauty and the Beast and Pocahontas are not predicted by the research supporting the first paradigm. Because of the positive relationship each daughter has with her father, neither would be expected to rebel, or to rebel in such dramatic fashion (Geuzaine et al., 2000; Quintana & Kerr, 1993).

However, the notion that being self-sacrificing is a positive trait is compatible with traditional western attitudes about women, who are taught they should intertwine their own motives and the motives of others so that they are synonymous (Wood, 1994). This intertwining eventually becomes "I am serving (or giving to) myself by serving (or giving to) others" (p. 53). In addition, it is not uncommon for women to begin to identify others' needs as their own needs (Eichenbaum & Orbach, 1987).

Message Four: fathers do not know what they are talking about. In all four films, the fathers give their daughters rules and restrictions that they believe are beneficial, and, in all four cases, the fathers are proven wrong by their daughters. The implication is that fathers are not as smart as they appear and, "when caring for girls, a father is bungling and brainless" (Corso, 1996, p. 2).

The father as an inept parent is reflected in the second paradigm, particularly by the work of Apter (1990) and Phillips (1996). Hust as all four daughters are autonomous and have healthy self-concepts (although this is a predictable outcome for only two of them, Belle and Pocahontas), all four fathers are inept parents (although this is predictable only for two of them, King Triton and the Sultan).

Message Five: assuming responsibility for your behavior is irrelevant because the outcome is the same whether or not you assume responsibility. Viewers may be confused by the messages regarding responsibility in the four films. If they see only Beauty and the Beast and Pocahontas, they see a situation in which assuming responsibility for your behavior results in a desired outcome: Belle takes Maurice's place as the Beast's prisoner, and Pocahontas forfeits love for her obligations to her people and her kingdom, and both are rewarded. If movie goers see only The Little Mermaid and Aladdin, they see a situation in which not assuming responsibility for your behavior results in a desired outcome: Ariel and Jasmine both run away and abandon their kingdoms, and both also are rewarded. Given the high probability that young viewers see all four films, they may be confused about the relationship between assuming responsibility for one's behavior and outcomes.

Part of the confusion a viewer, especially a young one, may experience could stem from the incongruity between what is depicted on the screen and the reality of father-daughter relationships as described by the two paradigms. According to the second paradigm, Ariel and Jasmine should not be rewarded for their "irresponsible" behaviors, but should feel guilty, angry, and resentful, and should be punished (Apter, 1990; Galvin & Brommel, 2000; Noller, 1995; Weiss, 1994). Instead, like Belle and Pocahontas, they feel worthy and lovable and are rewarded for their behavior.

Message Six: marrying young is advantageous. This message, apparent in the four films, is not addressed in the literature on parent-adolescent child relationships (cf. Genuchi, 1997). All four fathers support or overtly advocate their young daughters' marriages. Ariel and Jasmine marry at the end of their tales, although Jasmine is obviously young and Ariel is still a minor at 16. Belle and Pocahontas do not marry, although it is apparent that Belle will and that Chief Powhatan wanted Pocahontas to marry. Seeing these girls find father-approved "true love" at such a young age may create unrealistic expectations in viewers.

The power of these six messages comes, in part, from their presentation in a seemingly innocuous format, animation, and from being marketed as features for the entire family. How could they be anything more than simple diversions? Hart (1997) reminds us of the reality:

(1) rhetoric is most powerful when it is not noticed, and nobody notices popular culture; (2) people are easiest to persuade when they are in a good mood, and entertainment creates such moods; (3) some of our most basic values come to us when we are young, and the young consume entertainment voraciously; and (4) the mass media disseminate entertainment far and wide, thus affecting millions. Perhaps the only thing sillier than studying popular culture, then, is not studying it at all. (p. 204)

Inconsistencies and consistencies between fictional portrayals of father-daughter relationships and researchers' portrayals of fathers and daughters are important because of the expectations about family interactions they may create (Brummett, 1984; Turner & West, 1998). Future research should focus on what audiences, particularly young viewers, actually learn from these films. Understanding the expectations and myths they may adopt as a result of viewing these films-such as, a healthy self-concept and high self-esteem develop regardless of whether the father-daughter relationship is supportive or not, rebellion is rewarded, and assuming responsibility for one's behavior is unimportant-provides the opportunity to understand and predict young viewers' and adolescents' behavior as well as offer parents information to help guide their choices of "family" films.