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Women are important stakeholders in natural resource policies since rural women in developing countries are responsible for most of the collection of food, fuel, and firewood for commercial and domestic use. When it comes to the management of these natural resources, gender inequality due to societal traditions could limit the ability of women to participate in policy-making, even when they are not formally excluded. This paper analyzes the effect of gender stratification on women's participation by undertaking an empirical study of a participatory environmental policy program in Indian villages. It endeavors to answer the question of how gender stratification affects participatory environmental policy-making. Using the case study of a community forestry program, it finds that women are still marginalized in decision-making, even in participatory environmental policies. Gender stratification continues to impinge upon forms of democratic decision-making in developing societies. Using facilitating policy tools that seek to empower such marginalized groups would be one way of making participation meaningful for all groups in society.
KEY WORDS: community forestry; developing countries; gender; participation; social stratification.
INTRODUCTION
Many environmental policy scholars and activists advocate forms of decentralized decision-making in environmental policy. This has manifested itself in the form of community-based conservation projects in many developing countries. While emphasizing community decision-making, the differences within communities have been overlooked-differences with regard to power, influence, religion, ethnicity, caste, and gender (Agrawal and Gibson, 2001; Kothari et al. 1998). Moreover, the effect of social exclusionary practices that may undermine participation of certain groups also needs to be fully explored. For instance, gender inequality due to societal traditions may limit the ability of women to participate in policy-making, even when they are not formally excluded. This article examines the application of participatory policy-making in the context of rural women in developing countries. It seeks to understand how gender stratification affects women's participation in participatory environmental policy.2
PARTICIPATORY DECISION-MAKING
The normative underpinnings of participatory environmental policy-making lie in the literature on strong democracy. Theories of strong democracy subscribe to the notion that more active citizen involvement would result in a better polity. Pateman (1970) draws upon the work of Rousseau and Mill to argue that citizen participation is an essential element of a viable democratic theory. Barber (1984) posits strong democracy as an...