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Statement of Problem

"Computer-based technology" is perceived as an application of computer software that allows students to manipulate data, encourages problem-solving skills, and creates simulated learning environments through Internet service providers.

"Today's computer-based technologies offer new ways to provide students with direct experience .... Through using teaching and learning resources that can be manipulated electronically, technology can extend experience of students far beyond the time and space limitations of conventional materials" (Dyrli and Kinnaman, 1995). Teachers want to use more technology with their students. In our own classrooms, computer-based technology is used to help reinforce grammar skills and writing techniques taught during teacher-directed lessons. Using this type of technology helps students stay current with important grammar and writing components.

After interviewing teachers, parents, and students, we found that many had similar opinions about computer-based learning. Teachers' opinions stated that the use of computer-based learning to enhance grammar skills was highly favored. Parents agreed. Three-fourths of the students interviewed felt computer-- based learning suited them best, although one-fourth felt that traditional teaching methods better met their learning expectations. All participants in these interviews agreed that teacher-directed instruction should occur before computer-based learning takes place. Vygotsky states in his 1962 publication Thought and Language, "the larger the zone, the better students will learn in school." This emphasizes the idea of "zone of proximal development," or ZPD. Benson (1995) claims that since instruction should precede development, the requisite functions are immature when instruction begins. This statement correlates with the information from the interviews: teacher-directed learning needs to occur before computer-based learning can reinforce grammar concepts.

In our opinion, we feel that teacher-directed learning is important when teaching new grammar or writing concepts. Computer-based learning reinforces the new concepts and presents the material in a "realworld" context. "The important point is that the students do not do their work in isolation; they learn with their peers in a global context. Such strategies ... improve classroom practice and student learning in a substantial and meaningful way that fosters higher-level thinking, realworld skills, and lifelong learning" (Sherry, 1997). The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between computer instruction and traditional instruction and student growth in writing.

Literature Review

According to Zemelman, Daniels, and Hyde (1998), there are many best practices and methods to help students reach the goals for writing. All students can write. In order for students to write effectively and with meaning, teachers should use "best practices" as follows: find purpose for writing; model writing; extend writing across the curriculum; provide strategies for student evaluation; and assess only selected pieces. Some "Best Practice" techniques for effective student writing include the following: student-selected topics; prewriting; drafting; revising and editing; ongoing conferences; peer evaluation; partner interviews; and the use of inventive spelling. Ownership and responsibility is evident through the use of portfolios, student evaluation, and published work.

Lev Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) played a key role in our research. The ZPD allows for maximal learning and development of the learner. This ZPD was used to structure prewriting, drafting, peer editing, revising, and publishing experiences.

Early studies in the area of constructivism generally conclude that "function begins as an interaction between the child and a knowledgeable member of the culture" (Gredler, 1997). As Gredler points out, "contemporary research indicates that several changes take place on the interpersonal level, and each is accompanied by a change on the intrapersonal level." Students need the opportunity to build on prior knowledge in order to understand and construct new knowledge from an authentic experience. An authentic experience includes solving a real-life problem. Solving these problems encourages students to "explore possibilities, invent alternative solutions, collaborate with other students (or external experts), try out ideas and hypotheses, revise their thinking, and finally present the best solution they can derive"(NCREL,1999).

The range between the child's ability to solve problems independently and the need for assistance to solve the problem at a higher potential is the ZPD. Culture, society, and experience influence the zone. Benson (1995) sites, "Vygotsky (1962) claimed that the larger the zone, the better students will learn in school." In order for students to reach a higher potential, communication between the child and adult at the child's level is necessary. This can be done through prompts and questioning, allowing the child to reach the higher level with assistance.

Components of Instruction

Computer-based learning and constructivism are closely linked to learners' ZPD. For instance, computers can be programmed to test various learner zones. "Tests can determine the students' ability to solve problems in a subject independently versus their level with assistance" (Benson, 1995). In problemsolving situations, computers can provide the prompt for learners, helping them to achieve a higher cognitive level. Computer-based learning provides a non-threatening environment for students to interact with each other. Swan and Mitrani (1993) state that " . . . the use of computers will result in schools that are more student-centered and cooperative, and classrooms in which learning is more individualized than in the classrooms of today."

Additionally, computer-based learning allows students to become better problem solvers when working within a social environment. Social inequality between the student and the adult instructor can be decreased through the use of computer-based learning. Benson (1995) quotes Vygotsky, ". . . partners should jointly solve problems to bring about cognitive development. The computer can pose problems and prompt students to serve as the advanced partner to aid in problem solving."

Swan and Mitrani (1993) found that student-teacher interactions increased in computer-based classrooms. Learning became more individualized and student centered than in the traditional classroom setting. "We found 17 times more individual interactions between teachers and students than there were in traditional classroom settings" (Swan and Mitrani,1993). These outcomes have been seen in computer-based classrooms. When technology becomes more widely used in classrooms, more student-centered, cooperative classrooms where the teacher is a facilitator will be realized.

The way that writing is being taught is changing because of computer-based technologies. Students have more access to technology both at home and in the school setting. The purpose of student writing has changed due to the increased use of word processing, the Internet, and e-- mail. Computer-based writing has become a type of application to manipulate text information. Word processing programs involve a graphic interface in which students recognize pictures or symbols to represent text characteristics.

Langone, Levine, Clees, Malone, & Koorland (1996) devised a quasiexperimental design to study the effects of computer-based word processing versus pencil/paper writing tasks. Six elementary students with learning disabilities focused on the task of writing outside of the regular education classroom. The results indicated that there was little significant difference between the two strategies. However, there were individual differences between the two strategies. The study suggests that the effect of technology depends on the individual. The students in the study preferred using computer-based writing versus the paper/pencil task. Limitations of this study included use of older computers without a mouse interface, a two-week time frame, and no prior knowledge of students' computer skills.

The use of computer-based technology in writing has become widespread. The accessibility of information via the Internet from a home or classroom computer and Web pages created by experts on given topics allows students more authentic and updated resources. The students continually work on their projects, revising and refining to create a complete and polished article or product. "With feedback from the teacher, the students progressively revise and refine their own products until they are ready to hand them in. Products can be prepared with a word processor, using screen captures of photographs, graphics, and quotations (from Web sites) that are then inserted into a written document. Thus, students not only learn to access information from sources all over the globe, they also work through the process of creating and editing a polished, professional article" (Sherry, 1997). This strategy not only helps students improve basic writing skills, it also gives the students ownership of their writing in which they use higher order thinking skills, real world experiences, and lifelong learning.

Guthrie and Richardson (1995) focus on early elementary students and how technology motivates writing. Their findings show that students are intrinsically motivated by computer usage. Not only did student writing improve in both quantity and quality, the lure of being "published" encouraged them to write; students took pride in their finished product. Guthrie and Richardson state that by "publishing [students'] work in a form that looks professional, students were more eager to develop their writing products than if they were only handwriting them." Based on collaboration, peer support, appropriate technical tools, and motivation, teachers were able to construct a learning environment to promote successful writing. This study covers students in kindergarten through grade 2, omitting middle to late elementary. The results were only from the first year of a three-year study. The software used was part of Apple Computer's Early Language Connections series.

Bialo and Solomon (1997) cited a study done by a team at Vanderbilt University on inner city, at-risk kindergartners and the use of computer-based writing. Their finding "showed significantly superior gains in auditory, language, decoding-incontext and story-composition skills over a control group not using the computer." They referenced a study of Indiana's Buddy System, where computers were placed in the homes of upper elementary students. The findings showed that these students made significant gains in writing proficiency compared to schools without the use of the Buddy System. Because these studies were cited from other studies, there was no additional supporting information.

In reviewing the increasing role of technology in the learning environment, Hoskinson (1998) states that technology increases the productivity of learners by allowing them to create final products in a shorter amount of time. The Secretary of Labor's Commissions on Achieving Necessary Skills (SCANS) Report (Hoskinson, 1998) identifies using technology as one of the five critical competencies required to be competitive in a global economy. Teachers need not only be able to use technology, but they must be able to teach it so students can apply technology skills to their learning.

In order for students to become lifelong learners, they must possess the skills of communication, collaboration, creative problem solving, and technological fluency. Thornburg (1998) states, "Larry Irving, assistant secretary of commerce, has suggested that 60 percent of the jobs available at the turn of the century will require skills currently held by only 20 percent of today's workforce . . . ."

The future workforce for today's learners will have tougher requirements than ever before. What is assessed in schools today is not addressing the skills required for the twenty-first century. According to NCREL (1998), the workforce needs "citizens who can think critically and strategically to solve problems." To establish a clear vision of the goals students need, educators first need to look at the learning environment itself. NCREL (1998) cites Barbara Means of SRI International, who identifies seven variables that, "when present in the classroom, indicate that effective teaching and learning are occurring." They are:

* Children are engaged in authentic and multidisciplinary tasks.

* Assessments are based on students' performance of real tasks.

* Students participate in interactive modes of instruction.

* Students work collaboratively.

* Students are grouped heterogeneously.

* The teacher is a facilitator in learning.

* Students learn through exploration.

Technology is the tool that links these seven variables together. When integrated with each other, the student is submersed into an engaged learning environment.

If educators are to prepare students for success in the new millennium, it is imperative that learners are engaged in a technology-enriched learning environment. "Best practices" for writing must incorporate national goals and state standards for language arts and technology. By engaging learners through the use of these goals, standards, and practices, educators allow students to work collaboratively, communicating with each other and the teacher to attain their highest potential. Vygotsky's theory of ZPD reinforces this statement of engaged learning and the use of technology as a learning tool.

The purpose of our research project is to examine the relationship between computer instruction and traditional instruction and student growth in writing, using some of the above-mentioned components. These strategies will be used with the learners in fourth and sixth grades at Olson Park Elementary to assess the effectiveness of technology in the writing process.

By integrating these goals, standards, and practices in the fourthand sixth-grade writing curriculum at Olson Park Elementary, the students participated in two different writing experiences. The first writing experience included prewriting, drafting, peer and teacher editing, revising, and publishing with the use of computer technology. The second writing experience used the same techniques without the use of computer technology. The computer technology was replaced with the traditional pencil and paper technique, along with small group instruction.

Design and Methodology

The focus of the Harlem School District #122 for the past decade has been on the use of instructional technology to improve writing scores in IGAP testing. There has been no formal study on the relationship between technology-based writing and traditional methods within the district. We conducted a study to investigate the correlation between student writing scores and the use of computer-based writing skills. The main emphasis was on grammar, spelling, and writing mechanics. The research was conducted in two intermediate grade levels: fourth and sixth. The computer-based instructional programs and teacher-directed instruction were based on grade-level appropriateness.

All students were included from three specific classrooms with three different teachers. The total number of students participating in this study was 65. In the two fourth-grade classes, there were a total of 41 students-21 boys and 20 girls. In the sixth-grade class, there were 24 students-11 boys and 13 girls. Within this sample, there were 7 students identified with special needs (5 in fourth grade, 2 in sixth grade). In fourth grade, 4 students had academic IEPs (Individualized Education Plan), and 2 students had IEPs in the area of speech. In sixth grade, both students had academic IEPs. In the first and second writing projects, there were 2 fourth-grade IEP students who participated in this study but were exempt from the scoring. There were no gifted students who participated in this study. There were 2 students in fourth grade and 1 in sixth grade identified as ADD (Attention Deficit Disorder).

Olson Park Elementary School is located in a middle class northern Illinois suburban setting. The racial/ ethnic background of Olson Park is as follows: White, 91.5%; Black 3.9%; Hispanic 2.1%; Asian/Pacific Islander 2.3%; Native American 0.2%. Eightythree percent of the students at Olson Park had computers at home.

The building structure is based on open classrooms, which promotes a cooperative learning environment between students and teachers. Olson Park School was designed in the 1970s with classrooms designed in a pod configuration. In fourth grade, two sections of the three fourth-grade classes shared a common space. The third fourth-grade class partially joined the other two classes by an open wall space. Only two of the three fourth-grade classes participated in the study. The three sixth-- grade classes all shared a common space, in line with their open concept; however, each class had a short wall division between homerooms. Only one of the three sixth-grade classes participated in the study. All grade levels within the building are technology-enhanced classrooms equipped with six networked PCs, located on the side of each classroom. Student centers and rotation-based work are the focus of these learning environments.

In fourth grade, students were placed heterogeneously and randomly into groups of five or six students by arranging student desks together. The computers were placed along the interior classroom wall in the double fourth-grade classroom. In the adjoining fourth grade, the computers were placed on the opposite side of this wall. These classrooms had no windows or doors, and did not typify the traditional "four walls" configuration. Each classroom was carpeted and air-- conditioned, and was illuminated using standard fluorescent ceiling lights. In all three fourth-grade areas, bulletin board space was at a minimum, and the interior walls had cork strips for hanging student work. Each fourth-grade area also had a standard blackboard, overhead screen, and overhead projector.

In sixth grade, students were placed heterogeneously and randomly into groups of five or six students by seating them at rectangular tables. The students had crates under their chairs in which to keep all supplies and books. The computers for all three sixth-grade classes were placed along the interior wall of two classrooms, as well as along the partial wall between two of the three classrooms. These classrooms had no windows, but one did have a door from the learning center area. In all three sixth-grade classrooms, there was no bulletin board space; however, there were temporary walls on which items could be stapled. Each sixth-- grade area had a dry erase board, and the class that participated in the study had an overhead projector and screen.

Procedure

Before beginning the actual project, parent and student surveys on computer use outside of the school setting were administered during parent-- teacher conferences. Parents were asked during parent-teacher conference time to complete the survey and leave it in a designated area. Fourth-- grade parents completed and returned 78% of the surveys. Sixth-grade parents returned 100% of the surveys. The purpose of the parent survey was to determine the attitude toward technology. Some examples of the survey questions were: What is the main purpose for using your computer at work or at home? If you were given the task of learning a new skill or concept, and were given your choice, would you rather [choices given]? What types of technology help you learn most effectively [choices given]?

The purpose of the student survey was to determine technology usage outside of the school setting. These surveys were completed during the first full month of school, September, 1998. In fourth and sixth grades, 100% of the surveys were completed and returned.

Following the surveys, the first writing project was started. This, project was done with the use of computer software called Writing to Write, as well as teacher direction. Writing to Write is a computer software package produced by IBM and marketed for school use. "The Writing to Write program provides a stimulating environment where children can practice and refine language arts skills-listening, speaking, reading, and writing-and the Writing to Write unit objectives provide a focal point for interdisciplinary learning" (Martin, 1992). The Writing to Write process is carried out through four center-based learning areas. The four centers include reading, creative writing, computer, and work journal.

The reading station, Wreaders, involves the students reading an integrated novel that correlates with the writing skills being taught. For creative writing, students worked at the Wrinker center, which combines writing and creative thinking activities. The third center is a student work journal, which provides students independent practice with grammar skills. In fourth grade, the grammar skill addressed was, "How can I tell one from the other?" In sixth grade, the grammar skill addressed was, "What concept am I thinking of, and how can I explain it with associations and examples?" At the computer, students worked on developing a paper following a prescribed format on an assigned topic. The above format correlates with the first study of our project. Each of the four centers will be described as they are done in fourth and sixth grades, beginning with the Wreader.

The Wreader Center. In the Wreader center, students are given a novel to read that correlates with the language skill being addressed in the unit. In fourth grade, the nonfiction book Frogs, Toads, Lizards, and Salamanders, by Nancy Winslow Parker and Joan Richards Wright, was read. In sixth grade, the novel Journey to America, by Sonia Levitin, was read. In fourth grade, the language skill being addressed was comparisons. In sixth grade, the language skill being addressed was renaming nouns. Students read with a partner during the center time and filled out a "reader sheet" after each chapter. Several pages in the student work journal also addressed the reading novel.

The Wrinker Center. The Wrinker center provided students with different prompts for creative writing/ illustrating. Students worked on several of these prompts during the unit. In fourth grade, one example was "Which Superhero?" in which students had to describe two different types of superheroes that they had met at a party. In sixth grade, one example was "Current Events," in which the students had to generalize what their home would be like without electricity.

The Student Work Journal. The Student Work Journal provided students with different skills: in fourth grade, a student might be asked to compare and contrast an identified object (tree) from two perspectives, distant and close up; in sixth grade, students could write quotations that reflect what given concepts mean. These skills all related to the unit topic. Students completed Work Journal pages assigned by the classroom teacher during the course of the unit. This allowed all students to address the same skill at the same time.

The Computer Center. The Computer center is made up of two components. The first involves the students working with a partner to complete a paper that incorporates the skills being addressed in the unit. Students began by brainstorming a list of subject-related words and typing them into the Writing to Write program. When the list was completed, students used their generated list to outline a paper. This outline was called the Rehearsal Planner. The next step for the students was the writing of the rehearsal draft. This process prepared them for the individual writing project following the same steps. The classroom teacher assigned the individual writing project topic. In fourth grade, the topic was comparing school pizza and pizzeria pizza, and in sixth grade, the topic focused on using different ways to explain teamwork and cooperation.

The second writing project followed the same steps for the Wreaders, Wrinkers, and the Student Work Journal. The writing process followed the same procedures as the first writing project; however, it was done without the use of computer software. Instead, it was completed using teacher direction and traditional writing methods, such as pencil and paper. This writing process followed the same format as the Writing to Write format. The topic of the paper for fourth grade focused on the skill of linking verbs. The students wrote their final paper on animal facts of their own choice. In sixth grade, the skill covered was on organizing facts. The students were divided into four groups and they were assigned one of the following topics: Mummification, Pharaohs, the Nile River, and Pyramids. The students were given one of the following generalizations: the process of mummification; the life of a Pharaoh; journey on the Nile; and the importance of the pyramids to the Egyptian people. Working on their own, students researched their topics by taking notes, making an outline, and organizing their facts in a sequential order.

The only difference between the technology-based writing project and the traditional writing project was the use of computer software in the writing process. The computer software guided the students at the computer and allowed them to use word processing skills to complete the first writing project. The second writing project followed the same process but did not use any word processing; instead, it used teacher-- direction and pencil and paper to complete the writing project.

Assessment

The measures of assessment used for this study were parent and student surveys, informal observations, student writing samples, and a writing rubric. The parent surveys were comprised of both multiple-choice and ranking responses. The data from the parent surveys was compiled to determine attitude toward technology and learning. The student surveys were comprised of multiple-choice responses. The data from the student surveys was compiled to determine student use of computers outside of the classroom as well as determination of favorite subject areas. Each writing sample, computer-generated and traditional, was scored using the same rubric. The rubric consisted of four categories: correct sentence structure, spelling, writing mechanics, and paragraph format.

Informal observations by teachers were done during each Writing to Write session. Two full sets of rotations were done weekly. One rotation completes all four components of the Writing to Write process. Two days were needed to complete one rotation During student rotations, the teachers observed students in each center, providing assistance to students as needed. Teachers looked for students to remain on task and focused on the center activity. Students were expected to complete specific assignments at each center. At the end of each center, student work was spot checked and initialed by the teacher for progress. In the Wreader, Wrinker, and Work Journal centers, all incomplete work was sent home as homework.

Student writing samples were collected for a portfolio, which was kept for the duration of the school year. These writing samples were scored using the rubric, which looked at correct sentence structure, spelling, writing mechanics, and paragraph format. Scores from both writing projects were then compared in an effort to determine any differences in score as a result of using technology.

The ideal paper for fourth grade would have had three paragraphs with a minimum of five sentences in each paragraph. An ideal paper for sixth grade would have had five paragraphs with a minimum of five sentences in each paragraph. The scoring for all four components for both fourth and sixth grade was as follows: Excellent (5 points) 0-3 mistakes; Above average (4 points) 4-6 mistakes; Average (3 points) 7-8 mistakes; Needs improvement (2 points) 9-10 mistakes; and Poor (1 point) 11 or more mistakes.

The three teachers involved in this study read and scored each student's paper individually at the end of the writing unit. Each of the two units took six weeks to complete. Student scores were compared at the end of the second unit to determine whether the use of technology lowered the frequency of mistakes in each of the four components. Comparing the percentage score for both papers for each student made this determination.

Data Analysis

The parent surveys were used to determine parental attitude toward technology. The information collected from the parent surveys showed the percentage of computers used at home by fourth- and sixth-grade students. The survey was also used to determine how parents were using computers at home and at work and how that might reflect on student use at home. This survey was comprised of multiple-choice questions. The additional two questions on the survey, one being multiple choice and the other ranking, addressed learning styles of adults and how those learning styles might affect student learning. The multiple-choice question was broken down into percentages through the use of tallies. The other question was ranked from most effective way of learning to least effective way of learning. The three choices given were audio, computer, and TV/VCR.

The student survey was developed to identify any gender differences in the use of technology at home. It also addressed gender differences toward strengths in academic areas. This survey was comprised of yes/no and multiple-choice questions (i.e., Do you have a computer at home? What one subject are you best at? How often do you use your computer at home?). It was scored by looking at percentages of students who used computers at home and also compared percentages of preferred subject areas for both genders.

The Writing to Write process covers many skills in addition to those covered in this study. This study was designed to assess spelling, punctuation, writing mechanics, and paper format. The same rubric was used for both writing samples. Students' scores were compared between the two writing projects. The results for all three components follow.

Parent Surveys

The results of the parent surveys were as follows:

Question 1: "Do you own a computer at home?" Response choices were, "yes" or "no." The results show that 76% of the families owned a computer at home. This percentage represents 41 out of 54 families who completed surveys.

Question 2: "Do you use a computer at work?" Response choices were, "yes" or "no." Total number of responses differs due to the fact that one parent responded both yes and no to using a computer at work. The results show that 81% of the parents who completed the survey used a computer at work.

Question 3: "What is the main purpose for using your computer at work or at home?" Parents responded that "personal use" of computers was the first choice, educational purposes was second. Reference and entertainment had equal ranking.

Question 4: "If you were given the task of learning a new skill or concept, would you rather (choose one): read a manual, research at a library, use computer technology, collaborate with a colleague, or other." The results showed a significant trend toward using a computer to learn a new skill.

Question 5: "What types of technology help you learn most effectively?" Parents were asked to rank from 1-3, with 1 being the most effective. Choices given were audio, computer, and TV/VCR. The results show that the number one preference for learning a new skill was the computer, second was TV/VCR, and third was the use of audio.

Student Surveys

The student surveys were combined from fourth and sixth grades. The results show that gender did not have a significant impact on responses; results by gender are given in parentheses.

Question 1: "Do you have a computer at home?" Choices given were, "yes" and "no." The results show that out of 63 students, 79% had access to a home computer. (Boys: 80%; Girls: 93%)

Question 2: "What one subject area are you best at?" Choices given were, "science," "social studies," "math," "reading," and "language arts." The overwhelming majority said they were best in math. (Boys: 70%; Girls: 52%)

Question 3: "How often do you use your computer at home?" Choices given were "0-1 times per week," "2-3 times per week," "4-5 times per week," and "6-7 times per week." The results show that 33% of the students used a computer at home 0-1 times per week, compared to 18% of students who used a computer at home 6-7 times per week. The difference between these two categories was the most significant for this question. (Boys: significant difference between the 6-7 times per week category for boys and that for the overall data; Girls: no significant difference between the 0-1, 2-3, 4-5 times per week, but a significant decrease in the use of computers 6-7 times per week, which also represented a lower percentage than this category in the overall data.)

Informal Observations

No data was collected on the informal observations done during the two writing projects. During student rotations, the teachers observed students in each center, providing assistance to students as needed. Teachers acted as facilitators and guides to the students as they worked in each rotation. In addition, teachers looked for students to remain on task and focused on the center activity. Specific assignments were given at the beginning of each center for student work to be completed. At the end of each center, student work was spot checked and initialed by teacher for progress. In the Wreader, Wrinker, and Work Journal centers, all incomplete work was sent home as homework.

Student Writing Samples

The students were graded on a rubric in the following areas: sentence structure, correct spelling, writing mechanics (capitalization, punctuation, and indented paragraphs), and a five-paragraph structure (introductory, three-body, and concluding paragraph). This rubric was scored on a 20-point scale, with a possible five points for each category. The point scale for this writing project for both fourth and sixth grades was as follows: 20-18 points received an A; 17-- 16 points received a B; 15-14 points received a C; 13-12 points received a D; 11 points or below received an F. The grading scale for both fourth and sixth grades was as follows: 100-90% equals an A; 89-80% equals a B; 79-- 70% equals a C; 69-60% equals a D; below 59% equals an F.

Fourth Grade

In fourth grade, scores for the computer writing sample were as follows: for all students participating, an average of 84.4% or a B was scored on the computer writing project, and an average of 87.3% or a B+ was scored on the pencil/paper writing project. The scores were broken down into genders with the following results: On the computer writing project, boys received an average of 88.2% or a B+, and girls received an average of 85% or a B. In the pencil/paper writing project, girls received an average of 88% or a B+, and boys received an average of 86.1% or a B. The summary of fourth grade concludes that the boys scored higher on the computer writing project, and that girls scored higher on the pencil/paper writing project. However, the +2% between the two writing project scores was not significant.

Sixth Grade

In sixth grade, scores for the computer writing sample were as follows: for all students participating, an average of 91% or an A- was scored on the computer writing project, and an average of 90.4% or an A- was scored on the pencil/paper writing project. The scores were broken down into genders with the following results: On the computer writing project, boys received an average of 90.4% or an A-, and girls received an average 91% or an A-. In the pencil/ paper writing project, boys received an average of 90% or an A-, and girls received an average of 91% or an A-.

The summary of sixth grade concludes that the girls scored higher on both writing projects. However, the +/-1% between the two writing project scores was not significant.

Combined Fourth and Sixth Grades

In fourth and sixth grades, combined scores for the computer writing sample were as follows: for all students participating, an average of 88% or a B+ was scored on the computer writing project, and an average of 89% or a B+ was scored on the pencil/paper writing project. The scores were broken down into genders resulting in the following: Boys received an average of 89% or a B+ in the computer writing project, and girls received an average of 88% or a B+ in the computer writing project. In the pencil/paper writing project, boys received an average of 89% or a B+, and girls received an average of 89% or a B+. The summary of the overall findings between fourth and sixth grades shows that boys scored higher than the girls on the computer writing project and the boys and girls scored the same on the pencil/paper writing project. However, the +/-1% was not significant in either writing project.

Summary and Discussion of Findings

Does computer-based technology enhance academic writing performance in the areas of sentence structure, spelling, and writing mechanics? This was the question that drove our research and data when working with fourth- and sixth-- grade students. The Harlem School District has a strong emphasis on the use of technology in classroom instruction. The purpose of this study was to look at the difference between student scores using computer-based writing and the traditional pencil/ paper writing process.

Districtwide, writing is assessed through the use of state standardized testing (ISAT). The Harlem District does not have a standard writing assessment for teachers to follow. Instead, each teacher creates his or her own criteria and assessment for student writing. The Writing to Write program was intended as a uniform method of writing across the district, but teachers questioned its effectiveness compared to the traditional pencil/paper writing methods. This study was conducted to compare the results of the two writing methods.

Finding 1: Parent Survey

Parent survey responses to question 4 ("If you were given the task of learning a new skill or concept, and were given your choice, would you rather. . . .") showed that 55% would choose computer technology for learning a new skill or concept. This finding confirmed our anticipated results because the percentage of parents owning a computer at home was at 76%.

The way that writing is being taught is changing because of computer-based technologies. The increased usage of word processing and student-assisted writing software packages encourages students to compose while at the computer, and software identifies spelling and grammatical errors during the writing process. This has changed from the traditional pencil/paper writing method where students write, proofread, edit, and revise. Students have more access to technology both at home and in the school setting. The purpose of student writing has changed due to the increased use of word processing, the Internet, and email. Computer-based writing has become a type of application to manipulate text information. Word processing programs involve a graphic interface in which students recognize pictures or symbols to represent text characteristics. Finding 2: Student Surveys

The student surveys showed that 79% of the fourth- and sixth-grade students have computers at home. Out of this 79%, 84% of the students used a computer between 2 and 7 times per week at home. The survey did not ask for specific uses of the computer. In the Harlem School District, computer-based technology is being more widely used throughout the writing process. Specifically, at Olson Park School, computer technology used for writing is incorporated into the daily curriculum. Widespread availability of home and school computers has given students access to the Internet and Web pages created by experts on almost any topic, offering them more authentic and updated resources. The students continually work on their projects, revising and refining to create a complete and polished article or product. "With feedback from the teacher, the students progressively revise and refine their own products until they are ready to hand them in. Products can be prepared with a word processor using screen captures of photographs, graphics, and quotations (from Web sites) that are then inserted into a written document. Thus, students not only learn to access information from sources all over the globe; they also work through the process of creating and editing a polished, professional article" (Sherry, 1997). This strategy not only improves basic writing skills, it also gives students ownership of their writing as they use higher order thinking skills, real-world experiences, and lifelong learning.

Finding 3: No Difference between Groups

The findings of this project showed no significant difference (+/-1%) between the scores of the computer writing project and the pencil/paper writing project in both fourth and sixth grades. We believe this shows that there is really very little difference between the two writing processes. They adhere to the same methods, but the pencil/paper writing is handwritten and teacher-directed whereas the Writing to Write program is typewritten and computer-directed.

During the course of the study, the three teachers involved met before and after each component to communicate methods and findings. An effort was made to ensure the consistency of methods for each component.

Langone, Levine, Clees, Malone, & Koorland (1996) devised a quasiexperimental design to study the effects of computer-based word processing versus pencil/paper writing tasks. Six elementary students with learning disabilities focused on the task of writing outside of the regular education classroom. The results indicated that there was little significant difference between the two strategies. However, there were individual differences between the two strategies. The study suggests that the effect of technology depends on the individual. The students in the study preferred using computer-based writing versus the paper/pencil task. Limitations of this study included use of older computers without a mouse interface, a two-week time frame, and no prior knowledge of students' computer skills.

Finding 4: Informal Observations

The informal observations revealed no findings. However, students were monitored to ensure they remained on task and their questions were answered. This was true for both the pencil/paper and computer writing methods. Computer-based learning provides a nonthreatening environment in which students may interact with each other. Swan and Mitrani (1993) state that ". . .the use of computers will result in schools that are more student-centered and cooperative, and classrooms in which learning is more individualized than in the classrooms of today."

The three classrooms in this study used center-based, cooperative learning and computer technology, which creates a nonthreatening environment for students. Students are encouraged to work in groups, peer consult, and peer edit. The teachers in these three classrooms take on the role of facilitator, guiding the students through their learning experiences.

Project Limitations

Limitations of this study included longevity and number of writing samples in each project, number of grade levels involved, number of schools involved, student computer skills, and school socioeconomic background. This 18-week study covered only two writing units: the first was the computer writing project (which was also the first writing project of the school year, raising the question of whether the students had enough time to re-acclimate themselves to the writing process); the second was the pencil/paper project, which immediately followed the first writing project. Only one writing project for each method was administered and included in this study. Had this study been extended to include an additional sample for each method, the results may have been different.

The number of grade levels involved in this project was Rot representative of the number of grade levels at Olson Park School. In addition, only one of the three sections of sixth grade was involved in this study. Only two of the three fourth-- grade sections were involved in this study. Had all sections of these two grade levels been involved in the study, the results may have differed. In addition, if all grade levels at Olson Park had been involved in the study, the results may have been different.

The Harlem School District currently has nine elementary schools. Each building has access to the Writing to Write program. There has not been a districtwide study conducted on the effectiveness of using the Writing to Write program.

Student computer skills may have altered the results of the computerbased writing project. In the Harlem School District, there is no formal keyboarding instruction included in the curriculum. Students have different keyboarding ability levels that could have helped or hindered the results of the study.

Olson Park School has an upper middle class socioeconomic background, which is evident in the high percentage of computers at home. Conducting this study in schools with a lower socioeconomic background, where a smaller percentage of computers at home would be likely, may also have changed the results.

Future Directions

As a result of this study, the three teachers involved have begun to conduct additional studies concentrating in the areas of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and student motivation with the use of computer technology. Each component will be scrupulously examined to identify correlation between the use of technology and the writing process.

Future studies could include all elementary buildings in the Harlem School District. Longevity could be extended to include long-term tracking of students. For example, one group of students could be followed from kindergarten through sixth grade. By increasing the sample population and/or length of the study, more data would be available to make inferences about the effectiveness of technology and the writing process.